VAN NOSTRAND’S SCIENCE SERIES. 


No. 39. 


Brice SO Cts , 


A HAND-BOOK 


<MP 9KB 


Eleotro-Magnety 


TELEGRAPH 


T K A. E. LORING, 

52,63 A PRACTICAL TELEGRAPHER. 

.La I 

1^00 Jj 

FOURTH EDITION REVISED. 

NEW YORK: 

l). VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY. 
33 Murray and 27 Warren Street. 
1900 . 

















THE 

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Am 

Chap... Copyright No._ 


ShelL_vi.ll.ii. 2. (*>': 

I 

j No. i. 

- p- v) n 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

No. 2. 



No. 3 —PRACTICAL DESIGNING OF RETAINING-W ALLS. 

By Arthur Jacob, A.B. Second edition, revised, 
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NO. 9.—A TREATISE ON FUEL. By Arthur V. Abbott, 
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man Rogers. 

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New and revised edition. 













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No 39-A HANDBOOK OF THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC 
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No 40 .—TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY COMPRESSED 
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No. 41 .—STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. By W T illiam Kent, 

C. E., Assoc. Editor. Enoino-rinn Second Ed. 


No 42—VOUSSOIR ARCHES APPLIED TO STONE 
No. 42. vu B u I g^ h:Si TUNNELS. CULVERTS, AND 

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No 47 .—LINKAGES ; THE DIFFERENT FORMS AND 
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No. 58.—THE VENTILATION OF COAL-MINES. By W. 
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No. 59 .—RAILROAD ECONOMICS ; OR, NOTES WITH 
COMMENTS. By S. W. Robinson C.E. 


L 











A HAND-BOOK 


or THI 

Eleotro-Magnetio 


TELEGRAPH 




BY 


A. E. LORING, 

A PRACTICAL TELEGRAPHER. 



FOURTH EDITION REVISED. 


NEW YORK: 

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY. 

23 Murray and 27 Warren Street. 
IftOO 





11718 


Library of Congress 

Two CoriES Received 

JUN 28 1900 

Copyright «ntiy 

Qvt***' */; / r /OT> 

«... a* )dsy<r 

SECOND COPY, 

0«<iv<Mw4 trt 

I OROfR DIVISION, 

I JUN 29 1900 

Copyright, 1878, by D. Van Nostrand. 


Copyright, 1|Q0^b^I^ ^.n Nostrand Company. 


TH$ 








INTRODUCTION. 


It has been the aim of the author in 
the preparation of this little book, to 
present the principles of the Electro- 
Magnetic Telegraph, in a brief, concise 
manner, for the benefit of practical ope¬ 
rators and students of telegraphy. The 
works on telegraphy which have thus far 
been presented, besides being expensive, 
have contained much tha.t is useless, or 
which is not in a form to be readily un¬ 
derstood by young and inexperienced tel¬ 
egraphers. Although this little work 
must be acknowledged incomplete, it is 
hoped that it may go far toward supply¬ 
ing the deficiency which has existed ; or, 
at least, serve as a stepping-stone to the 
stiuly of the more complete works on 
electricity and telegraphy. 

THK AUTHOR. 



PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION. 

In the present edition, an attempt has 
been made to revise the original text, as 
the present state of telegraph joractice 
requires, without increasing the size of 
the hook. A new chapter, describing in 
outline the duplex and quadruplex 
methods of telegraphy has been added^ 
however, which it is believed will mate¬ 
rially increase the value of the work. 

A. E. L. 


January 5th, 1900. 


CONTENTS 


Part I.—Electricity and Magnetism. 

PAGE 

Electricity—Positive and Negative. 9 

Conductors and Non-Conductors. 10 

Galvanic Batteries. 11 

Galvanic Circuits. 12 

Electrical Quantity and Intensity. 13 

Gravity Batteries. 15 

Resistance. 17 

Electro-Motive Force. 17 

Ohms Law. 18 

Measurement of Currents. 20 

Measurement of Resistance. 20 

Divided Circuits. 21 

Electro-Magnets. 23 

Differential Magnets. 25 

Magnetic Induction. 26 

Residual Magnetism. 27 

Proportion of Electro-Magnets to Circuit.. 27 

Part II.—The Morse Telegraph. 

Fundamental Principle.„. 28 

Telegraph Circuits. 29 

Intermediate Offices. 32 






















VI 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

The Local Circuit. 33 

Ground Wires. 35 

The Key. 35 

The Relay. 38 

The Sounder. 40 

Main Line Sounders. 41 

The Box Relay. 43 

Cut-Outs and Other Switches. 45 

Lightning Arresters. 48 

The Switch Board. 50 

Loops. 54 

Arrangement of Offices. 

Arrangement of Batteries. 55 

Repeaters.. * -v w 

Automatic Repeaters. 59 

Part III.—The Quadruplex. 

Duplex and Quadruplex Systems. 62 

The Stearns Duplex. 63 

The Condenser. ^8 

The Polar Duplex. 70 

The Quadruplex. 75 

Part IV.— Practical Telegraphy. 

Alphabet and Numerals. 83 

Adjustment of Instruments. 84 

Testing Telegraph Lines. 86 

Breaks. 86 


























CONTENTS. Vii 

Page 

Escapes. 88 

Grounds. 90 

Crosses . 90 

Maintenance of Battery. 91 

Balancing the Quadruplex. 93 

Part V.—Construction of Lines. 

The Conductors. 95 

The Insulators. 97 

Fitting up Offices. 98 

Ground Wire Connections. 99 

Private and Short Lines. 100 

Appendix. 

Suggestions and Exercises for Learners... . 104 
Index ... . Ill 




















* 








'SI 


, 

. 















■ 





ELECTRO-MAGNETIC 


TELEGRAPH. 


ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 

Electricity.—Positive and Negative. 

The real nature of electricity is un¬ 
known. It is often spoken of as a fluid . 
and is said to flow in a current , but these 
terms may be considered as used more for 
the sake of convenience, than as indicat¬ 
ing the real nature of electricity. 

There are two kinds of electricity, or 
it exists in two different states, known as 
positive and negative; and experiment 
shows,that whenever one kind is developed 
that of the opposite kind is always devel¬ 
oped in an exactly equal quantity. These 
two kinds of electricity are usually desig¬ 
nated by the signs + and —. It is a law 
of electricity, that electricities of like sign 



10 


repel each other , and electricities of urilikt 
sign attract each other. 

Conductors and Non-Conductors. 

Electricity passes through some sub¬ 
stances easily, and through others with 
difficulty, or scarcely at all. The first 
class of substances are called conductors , 
the second non-conductors , or insulators . 
No absolute division can be made between 
conductors and non-conductors, as the 
property of conduction exists in every 
conceivable degree, from the best conduc¬ 
tor to the best insulator, or worst conduc¬ 
tor. In the following list the first named 
substance is the best conductor, and the 
last named the best insulator. 


Conductors. 

Non-Conductor* 

Silver, 

Dry wood. 

Copper, 

Porcelain, 

Gold, 

Dry Paper, 

Zinc, 

Silk, 

Platinum, 

Glass, 

Iron, 

Gutta Percha, 

Tin, 

India Rubber, 

Lead, 

Shellac, 

Mercury, 

Hard Rubber 

Acids, 

Paraffine, 

Water, 

Dry Air. 


11 


Galvanic Batteries. 

Galvanic, or Voltaic electricity is de¬ 
veloped by chemical action. When two 
plates of metal, of different kinds, as cop¬ 
per and zinc, for example, are immersed 
in a cup containing an acid, and are con- 

Fig. 1. 



Galvanic Element. 

nected by wires at the top, as represented 
in Pig. 1, a current of electricity will flow 
from the copper to the zinc through the 
wires, and from the zinc to the copper 
• through the acid. If the wires connect¬ 
ing the two metals are separated, the cur- 




12 


rent of electricity instantly ceases, but 
starts again whenever the wires are con¬ 
nected. An apparatus for generating 
electricity in this way is called a galvanic 
battery. The copper slip is called the 
positive ( + ) pole of the battery, and the 
zinc the negative (—) pole. The prin¬ 
cipal kinds of batteries used in operating 
the telegraph will be described hereafter. 

Galvanic Ciecuits. 

The path traversed by the current of a 
battery is called a circuit The circuit 
of the battery shown in Fig. 1 consists of 
the metals, wires, and the acid through 
which the current of electricity passes. 
It is a law of the electric current that 
there must he a continuous , unbroken cir¬ 
cuit, by which the current may pass en¬ 
tirely around from one pole of the battery 
to the other , or no current will start from 
the battery . The smallest break in the 
circuit is sufficient to interrupt the cur¬ 
rent instantly, but it begins to flow again 
the instant the circuit is again completed. 
The direction of the current through the 


13 


circuit is always from the positive to the 
negative pole of the battery. 

It may be more correct, however, con¬ 
sidering the electrical force as a current , 
to say that there are two currents flowing 
in opposite directions, and for convenience 
the positive one only is spoken of as the 
current. 

Electrical Quantity and Intensity. 

A battery may consist of a single cup, 
or cell, or of an indefinite number of cups 
connected together by wires. In con¬ 
necting them together, the copper, or 
positive pole of the first cup must be con¬ 
nected by a wire with the negative pole of 
the second, and the positive pole of the 
second with the negative of the third, 
and so on throughout the series, always 
connecting unlike or opposite poles, be¬ 
cause, according to the law of attraction 
and repulsion already stated, poles of like 
sign oppose one another, and poles of un¬ 
like sign attract one another. 

The quayitity of electricity generated 
by three cells of battery connected as 


14 


directed above, is no greater than that 
generated by one cell, but the intensity 
of the current generated will increase in 
proportion to the number of cells so con¬ 
nected. Intensity or tension is the force 
which enables the current to push its way 
through a conductor, or to overcome re¬ 
sistance. 

If two or more cells of battery are 
connected as shown in Fig. 2, with all the 


Fig. 2. 



Galvanic Battery—Quantity Arrangement. 


positive poles connected to one end of the 
wire conductor, and all the negative poles 
connected to the other end, the quantity 
of the current generated will be in pro¬ 
portion to the number of cells, but the 





15 


intensity of the current will be no greater 
than that of a single cell. 

The general principle is, that quantity 
increases with the surface of metal con¬ 
nected with each pole, whether that sur^ 
face is all in one cell, or distributed 
through several cells connected as in 
Fig. 2. The intensity increases with the 
number of elements, or cells, having op¬ 
posite poles connected, and does not de¬ 
pend upon the size of the metals used. 
Consequently, large cells evolve a greater 
quantity of current than small ones, but 
of no. greater tension. 

Gravity Batteries. 

The various forms of battery formerly 
used in operating the telegraph have 
been entirely superseded by the gravity 
battery. There are a variety of forms, 
without any material difference in the 
principle involved. That shown in Fig. 
2 a is the “crowfoot” battery, so called 
from the peculiar shape of the zinc. 
The copper is placed at the bottom of 
the jar, the zinc at the top. The sul- 


16 


phate of copper solution at the bottom 
of the jar and the sulphate of zinc solu- 



Gravity Battery. 


tion at the top are kept separate by the 
difference in their specific gravities. 


















































17 


Resistance. 

Resistance is the opposition which the 
conductor, or circuit offers to the passage 
of the current. Thus the best conductor 
offers the least resistance, and the poorest 
conductor the greatest resistance. Re¬ 
sistance may be considered as the recip¬ 
rocal of conduction. Resistance is meas¬ 
ured by Ohms. 

In the case of two conducting wires of 
the same material, that which presents 
the largest area of cross-section to the 
current offers the least resistance. Thus, 
although copper is a better conductor 
than iron, an iron wire of large size may 
have a lower resistance than a copper wire 
of smaller size. The conducting power of 
a wire increases, and its resistance de¬ 
creases, in proportion as the area of its 
section increases. On the other hand, the 
resistance of a conducting wire of a given 
material increases in proportion to its 
length. 

Electro-motive Foroe. 

The power which a cell of battery 
possesses of causing the transfer of its 


18 


current from one place to another is its 
electro-motive force. In other words, the 
electro-motive force of a current is its 
power of overcoming resistance—its en¬ 
ergy. Electro-motive force may be de¬ 
fined as tension in a state of motion; and 
tension, as electro-motive force in a state 
of rest. (Holstein's Galvanometer .) 

Electro-motive force, or potential, is 
measured by the unit called the Volt. 

Ohm’s Law. 

The amount of the current which will 
pass through a circuit depends, first, 
upon the resistance which the circuit 
offers to the passage of the current, and 
second, upon the intensity of the electro¬ 
motive force which tends to overcome 
that resistance. The amount of the cur¬ 
rent may he found, according to Ohm's 
law , which may be stated thus: 

E represents *the electro-motive force, 
R the resistance, and 
C the current which will pass through 
the circuit, thus: 



19 


Fig. 3. 



Galvanometer 


f 










20 


or, the current is equal to the electro-mo¬ 
tive force divided by the resistance. 

Measurement of Currents. 

Electric currents may be measured by 
an instrument called a galvanometer , 
one form of which is shown in Fig. 3. 
It consists of a magnetic needle sur¬ 
rounded by a coil of insulated wire. 
When a current is passed through the 
coil of wire, its amount is marked by the 
deflection of the needle on the face of a 
dial, the degree of deflection being al¬ 
ways in proportion to the strength of the 
current. The strength of the current is 
measured by a unit called the ampere. 

Measuremenx of Resistance. 

The resistance of a conductor may be 
measured by an instrument called a rheo¬ 
stat (Fig. 4), used in connection with a 
galvanometer. The rheostat consists es¬ 
sentially of resistance coils of fine Ger¬ 
man silver wire inclosed in a box. Bind¬ 
ing posts are provided for placing it in 
circuit, and any desired number of the 


21 


coils may be cut out by inserting brass 
plugs in the top of the box, according to 
the resistance required. 

The rheostat and galvanometer are put 
in circuit with the conductor whose re¬ 
sistance is to be measured, and the de¬ 
flection of the needle of the galvanometer 
is noted. The conductor to be meas¬ 
ured is then taken out of the circuit, and 
as much resistance is thrown in by the 
rheostat as will give the same deflection 
of the needle. The resistance marked 
by the rheostat will, evidently, be equal 
to that of the conductor previously in 
circuit. 


Divided Circuits. 

When two or more wires are connected 
together so as to form one continuous 
wire, the resistance of the whole circuit 
will be the sum of the resistances of the 
wires which compose it. But if two or 
more wires are arranged side by side, the 
ends being connected with each other, 
the current is divided among the several 
conductors, and the conducting power 


22 








































































































































































23 


of the whole is equal to the sum of the 
conducting power of the wires which 
compose it. 

When a current of a given electro-mo¬ 
tive force divides between two or more 
branches of the conductor, the strength 
of the current in each branch is, by 
Ohm's law, inversely proportional to the 
resistance. An important application of 
this principle occurs in the duplex and 
quadruplex systems of telegraphy, where 
the current is caused to divide equally 
between two branches of the conductor, 
—one consisting of the line and the other 
of a rheostat circuit adjusted to equal the 
resistance of the line. 

Electro-Magnets. 

A simple form of electro-magnet is 
shown in Fig. 5. A conducting wire, in¬ 
sulated by being covered with silk or cot¬ 
ton, so that the current must traverse its 
entire length, is wound several times 
around each arm of a TJ shaped piece of 
soft iron. When a current of electricity 
is passed through the insulated conduct- 


24 


mg wire, the soft iron U instantly be¬ 
comes magnetized, and attracts an iron 



bar, A, called an armature , which is 
placed near its ends or poles. As soon as 
the current of electricity ceases to pass 
through the wire, the soft iron U is de¬ 
magnetized and ceases to attract its ar¬ 
mature. 

Electro-magnets for use in telegraphy 
are made as represented in Fig. 6. Two 
spools, a b , having soft iron cores, are 
wound with fine silk-insulated copper 
wire, as thread is wound upon a spool. 


25 


The two spools are fixed upon a bar of 
iron, B, called a yoke. A is the arma- 

V 

Fig. 6. 



Electro-Magnet. 


ture which is attracted toward the cores 
or poles, e e , whenever the current 
passes through the coils of the magnet. 

Differential Magnets. 

It will be observed that the wire passes 
around the soft iron U, Fig. 5, in such 
a direction that if the U is straightened 
out the convolutions will all lie in one 
direction. One end of the bar becomes 
the north pole and the other the south 
pole of the magnet, and the polarity may 



26 


be reversed by changing the direction of 
the current around the bar. This may 
be by either changing the direction of 
the coils, or by reversing the poles of the 
battery. 

A differential electro-magnet may be 
made by passing two separate coils around 
the core, and its polarity is established 
according to the direction of the current. 
If currents of equal strength traverse the 
two coils in opposite directions they tend 
to establish opposite polarities and the 
magnetic effect is neutralized. 

Magnetic Induction. 

When either pole of a magnet is placed 
near any object capable of magnetization, 
it is attracted toward the magnet, the 
magnet pole nearest the object develop¬ 
ing magnetism of the opposite polarity 
by induction, and the two mutually at¬ 
tract each other. Thus each pole of an 
electro-magnet develops magnetism of 
an opposite polarity, by induction, in 
that end of the armature nearest to it, 
and the armature is attracted toward the 
electro-magnet. 


27 


Residual Magnetism. 

When the current which passes through 
the coils of an electro-magnet is inter¬ 
rupted, demagnetization of the soft iron 
cores takes place. If the iron is very 
soft and pure this is effected almost in¬ 
stantly on the cessation of the current 
through the coils. But if the demagnet¬ 
ization is not complete, and a small 
amount of magnetism remains in the 
cores after the cessation of the current, it 
is called residual magnetism. A spring 
is therefore attached to the armature of 
the magnet, which overcomes the attrac¬ 
tion of the residual magnetism, and 
draws the armature away from the poles 
of the magnet. 

Proportion of Electro-Magnets to the 
Circuit. 

It is a law of the electric circuit, that 
the maximum magnetic force is developed 
when the resistance of the coils of the 
electro-magnets in circuit is equal to the 
resistance of the other parts of the circuit; 
i. e., fh°. conducting wires and battery. 


28 


An electro-magnet is of the best pro¬ 
portions when the total thickness of the 
coils, measured from the outside to the 
core, is equal to the diameter of the core. 
When, therefore, the coils must be of 
high resistance, they are wound with a 
great length of fine wire. When the re¬ 
sistance of the circuit is light, a shorter 
length of coarser wire is used. 


PART II.—THE MORSE TELEGRAPH 
Fundamental Principle. 

The Morse telegraph system is so called 
m from the name of its inventor, Samuel 
F. B. Morse, an American, who con¬ 
structed the first line between Baltimore 
and Washington in the year 1844. 

Morse’s telegraph operates upon the 
principle, that an electro-magnet may be 
alternately magnetized and demagnetized 
by stopping and starting a current of 
electricity, by opening and closing the 
circuit of which the electro-magnet forms 
a part. 



29 


Telegraph Circuits. 

Fig. 7 represents a telegraph circuit, 
consisting of a line wire stretching from 
the station A to the station B; a bat¬ 
tery T, an electro-magnet M, and a key 
K, for opening and closing the circuit, 
at each of the stations. To avoid the 
expense of a second wire to complete 
the circuit between the two stations, the 
line wire, after passing through the mag¬ 
net. key and battery at each end of the 
line, is run to the ground at G-, complet¬ 
ing the circuit through the earth. Be¬ 
sides being less expensive, this plan has 
the additional advantage that the resist¬ 
ance of the circuit completed through the 
earth is less than it would be through a 
return wire, as the resistance of the earth 
is practically nothing. On very short 
lines sometimes a second wire is used, 
which constitutes what is called a metalic 
circuit. 

When the circuit is closed at A by 
means of the key, K, the current traverses 
the circuit, passing through both electro¬ 
magnets, M M. causing them to attract 


v\g. 7 . 


30 




» 


Telegraph Circuit 











31 


their armatures as long as the current 
continues. When the circuit is again 
opened by the key, the current is inter¬ 
rupted, and the electro-magnets release 
their armatures. The effect is the same 
whether the circuit is opened and closed 
by the key at A, or at B. The effect, 
also, upon the electro-magnet is the same 
whether the key is at the same station 
with the magnet, or at another station 
many miles distant. 

Bv the original method of operating 
the telegraph, the armature of the mag¬ 
net at each station was attached to one 
end of a lever having a sharp pointed steel 
style in the other end, which indented a 
strip of paper drawn before it by means 
of clockwork. If the armature was at- 
tracted but an instant, the style came in 
contact with the paper only an instant, 
and indented it with a short mark, or dot. 
If the armature was attracted for a longer 
time, the result was a longer mark, or 
dash upon the paper. Thus, it will be 
observed, dots and dashes may be marked 
upon the paper by closing the circuit by 


32 


the key for a shorter or a longer time. 
If different combinations of dots and 
dashes are used to represent letters, it is 
evident that a message may be transmit¬ 
ted by means of the key at one station to 
the electro-magnet at another. 

In more recent practice, the method 
of marking the signs upon paper has been 
superseded by arranging the lever attached 
to the armature in such a way that it will 
give sounds at shorter or longer intervals 
according to the time the circuit is closed. 
These intervals between sounds may be 
considered as representing dots and dash¬ 
es, and for convenience the terms dot and 
dash are retained. 

Intermediate Offices. 

An indefinite number of intermediate 
or way stations may be introduced in the 
circuit between the two terminal stations 
of the line, each station or office being 
provided with its key and magnet. The 
circuit may be opened by a key placed 
at one of these intermediate stations, at 
any point on the line, and the effect upon 


33 


every magnet in the circuit will be pre¬ 
cisely the same ; but it is obvious that 
only one key can be operated for opening 
and closing the circuit at the same time. 

The Local Circuit. 

On a circuit as long as a telegraph line 
reaching from city to city, the resistance 
of the long line of wire is so great that 
the current is often weakened to such an 
extent in passing over it, that sufficient 
magnetic force is not developed in the 
electro-magnets to attract their armatures 
with the power necessary to mark paper, 
or give a satisfactory sound to the motions 
of a lever. For this reason, instead of 
placing the magnet of the recording or 
sounding instrument in the main circuit, 
its place is supplied by a relay magnet, M, 
(Fig. 8). The armature of the relay 
magnet is attached to a lever, S, which 
opens and closes the circuit of another 
battery, B, at the point P. This second or 
local circuit is represented by the dotted 
lines. When the main circuit, or line is 
closed, the relay magnet attracts its 
2 * ' 


34 


armature and closes the local circuit, in 
which is placed the recording or sounder 



magnet GL The lever of the relay mag¬ 
net is so light that a weak current is suf¬ 
ficient to work it, but the resistance of 
the local circuit, which is composed of 
only a few feet of wire, is so small that 









35 


nearly the entire force of the local bat¬ 
tery is effective upon the local magnet. 
It will be noticed that although the local 
circuit depends for its action upon the 
main circuit, the main circuit is entirely 
separate and independent from the local, 
and is not affected in the least by its 
action. 

Ground Wires. 

At every intermediate station, a wire 
called a ground wire is run from the 
office to the ground. This wire may be 
connected with the line wire so as to di¬ 
vide the main circuit into two distinct 
and independent circuits. The uses of 
the ground wire will be explained more 
fully hereafter. 


The Key. 

The key, or sending instrument is rep¬ 
resented in Fig. 9. It consists of a lever 
of brass, L, about five inches long, which 
is hung on a shaft between two set screws 
on the frame or base B. The key is fas¬ 
tened to the operating table by two legs, 
R R', which pass through the table and 


are secured by nuts underneath. The 
circuit is formed through the key by cut¬ 
ting the wire of the main circuit and con- 

Fig. 9. 


S 



Key. 


necting one of the ends to each of the 
legs. The leg, R', is in direct connection 
with the brass base of the instrument, 
but the other leg. R, is insulated from it 
by being set in a piece of hard rubber, so 
that the circuit is broken at this point and 










37 


the current cannot pass from R' to R. 
The leg, R, terminates in a platinum 
point, P, and a similar platinum point, 
P, is placed in the lever L. 

When it is desired to complete the cir¬ 
cuit, the lever is pressed down by the 
pressure of the fingers upon a hard rub¬ 
ber finger piece, F, bringing the two 
platinum points, P P, in contact, and 
completing the connection between R' 
and R through the lever and platinum 
points. When the pressure upon F is 
released, a spring under the lever re¬ 
stores it to its former position, separating 
the platinum points, and the circuit is 
broken. 

C is a circuit . closer , which completes 
the connection and closes the circuit per¬ 
manently when it is pushed against the 
anvil which forms the top of the leg, R. 
This is always done when the key is not 
in use, for if the circuit through it was 
not completed in this way, the current 
could not flow through the circuit, and 
all the other keys situated in it would be 
useless. The play of the lever, or the 


38 


distance between the platinum points 
is regulated by a set screw, D, in the 
end of the lever. Sometimes another 
set screw, S, is provided for regulating 
the tension of the spring under the 
lever. 


The Relay. 

The Eelay consists, as shown in Fig. 
10, of a large intensity electro-magnet, 
supported by a frame of brass on a 
dry hard wood base. The armature of 
the electro-magnet is attached to a lever, 
which plays between two adjustable 
set screws, fixed in the frame of the 
instrument. As this lever acts as a 
key to open and close the local circuit, 
it is provided with a platinum point 
which strikes upon another platinum 
point on the end of the set screw. The 
platinum point of the lever is in electri¬ 
cal connection, by means of wires beneath 
the base of the instrument, with one of 
the binding posts, and the point in the 
screw, with the other. The wires of 
the local circuit are connected to these 




binding posts. The coils of the magnet 
are in connection with the binding posts 



behind the coils, to which the mam line 
wires are attached, and the magnet put 























40 


in circuit. The tension of the spring 
which draws the armature and its lever 
back, and opens the local circuit when it 
is not closed by the attraction of the 
magnet, is regulated by an adjustment. 
The distance of the magnet from the 
armature is regulated by another adjust¬ 
ment, called the “back adjustment.” 

The coils of relay magnets are wound 
with very fine wire, usually No. 30 to 
No. 36, and with a resistance varying to 
suit the resistance of the circuit. The 
coils of electro-magnets used in tele¬ 
graphy are generally covered with hard 
rubber, as a protection to the wire. 

The Sounder. 

The Sounder , or receiving instrument 
is shown in Fig. 11. It consists simply 
of a small electro-magnet, having a re¬ 
sistance of from 2 to 4 ohms ; an arma¬ 
ture and heavy sounding lever, which 
plays between two adjustable set-screws; 
and the necessary frame-work of brass, 
mounted upon a base of wood. An adjust¬ 
ment is provided for regulating the ten¬ 
sion of the spring of the armature. The 


41 


magnet is put in circuit by means of two 
binding posts on the base of the instru¬ 
ment. 


Fig. 11. 



The Sounder. 


Main Line Sounders. 

When the current of the main circuit 
is sufficiently strong, the local circuit and 
sounder is sometimes dispensed with, and 
the relay is converted into a sounder by 
giving its lever more “play,” or motion, 
and thereby increasing its sound. More 
frequently a Main Line Sounder is used. 
This instrument is made in a variety of 
forms, and numerous devices have been 







Pig 12 


42 



employed to increase the sound of the 
lever, which must often be operated by 
a comparatively weak main line current 


Box Relay. 



















43 


The Box Relay. 

The instrument called the Box Relay 
is so arranged that it may be used ad¬ 
vantageously either as a relay or as a 
main line sounder. The magnet coils 
are inclosed in a small wooden box 
against which the lever strikes (Fig. 12), 
thus increasing the sound. These in¬ 
struments, when made with a key upon 
the same base, are convenient porta¬ 
ble instruments for opening temporary 
offices. 


Note.— The form of key now in general use 
has a lever of steel made in a single piece with 
the trunnion shaft. Fig. 13 is a combination 
set, showing such a key, with relay and sounder, 
of the most modern pattern, on one base. These 
instruments, either in combination or separately, 
the quadruplex machinery, switches, etc., as 
well as the galvanometer and rheostat shown in 
Part I, are illustrations of apparatus manufac¬ 
tured by J. H. Bunnell & Co., 76 Cortlandt 
Street, New York. 



Kg. 13 


44 














































































































































































45 


Cut-Outs and Other Switches. 

When an office is left with no one in 
charge the wires should he “ cut out,” or 
disconnected from the line. The cut¬ 
out is made in various simple forms, 
usually combined with a ground switch, 
and sometimes with a lightning arrester. 
The form called the plug switch (Fig. 
14) has been extensively used. A plug 
is made of two pieces of brass separated 
and insulated from each other by a piece 
of hard rubber. The instruments of the 
office are connected with the two sides 
of this plug by flexible conducting wires. 
When the office is to he put in circuit, 
or cut in,” the plug is inserted between 
a pin and a brass spring, as shown in the 
figure. The main line wires are attached 
to the binding posts at the top of the 
switch, one of which is in connection 
with the pin, and the other with the 
brass spring. It is obvious that as the 
two sides of the plug are insulated from 
each other the current must pass through 
the office; but when the plug is with- 


40 


drawn the brass spring presses against 
the pin, closing the main circuit, and 

Fig. 14. 



Plug Switch. 

leaving the office entirely disconnected, 
or “ cut out.” The switch shown has 









4 


ground switch and lightning arrester at 
the top. 

A later form, called a spring cut-out, 
is shown by Fig. 14a. The plug is cyl¬ 
indrical, and the operation of the cut- 


Fig. 14a. 



Spring Cut-Out. 


out device is obvious. The figure shows 
cut-outs for four wires. They are usu¬ 
ally made for from one to three lines in 
connection with ground connectors and 
lightning arresters, and may be used 

















































































48 


■wherever it is not required to make cross 
connections of wires, or any changes 
other than changing instruments from 
one line to another. Other forms of 
switches are used, and for various pur¬ 
poses, but they are too numerous to be 
described within the limits of this little 
book 

Lightning Arresters. 

The fine wire coils of the relay magnet 
are sometimes burned or injured by at¬ 
mospheric electricity, which follows the 
wires into the office during the prevalence 
of electric storms. Asa protection, light¬ 
ning arresters are sometimes used. Both 
the line and ground wires are attached to 
the lightning arrester, so that a charge 
of atmospheric electricity entering the 
office by the line wires is carried to the 
ground. The lightning arrester is made 
in several forms, but the principle in¬ 
volved is much the same in all of them; 
that is, that atmospheric electricity, be¬ 
ing of high intensity, will leap a slight 
break in the conductor, or overcome con- 


49 


siderable resistance in order to force its 
way to the ground; while the galvanic 
current, being of lower intensity, is un¬ 
able to overcome such resistance and is 
confined to the line. 

.A common form, the disc arrester, is 
shown in Fig. 15. A disc of brass is 


Fig. 15. 



Disc Arrester. 


screwed over brass plates connecting with 
line and ground, but not quite touching 
them. Another form is arranged with 
pointed screws projecting from the line- 
wire plates toward the ground-wire plate, 
leaving a very small space between the 
plate and the points, over which the 
lightning leaps, making its way to the 


50 


ground. (See Fig. 14.) Other forms 
have notches or “saw teeth ” projecting 
from one plate in proximity to another. 
Th e plate arrester does not vary materi¬ 
ally in principle from the disc arrester. 
In the quadruplex arrester (Fig. 15 a) a 
very fine coil of wire is fused by the light- 


Fig. 15a. 



Quadruplex Arrester. 

ning, thus making connection with the 
ground plate. It is commonly used with 
quadruplex apparatus as a protection to 
the finely wound magnets of the relays. 

The Switch Board. 

A sivitcti board is generally used in 
offices having two or more wires entering 
them. The form now in common use is 


51 


shown in Fig. 16. The connections of 
brass are arranged upon a hoard of dry 
hard wood, as represented, and fitted 


Fig. 16. 



Switch Board. 


with binding posts at the top, to which 
the line wires are connected. Other 
straps of brass pass horizontally across 





















52 


the back of the board, and are in con¬ 
nection with the binding posts at the 
side of the board, to which the instru¬ 
ment wires are connected. Each of these 
back straps is in connection with one of 
the horizontal rows of studs which ap¬ 
pear between the line stiaps upon the 
face of the board. By inserting plugs 
in the holes between the studs and line 
straps connection is made with the in¬ 
strument straps. It is clear that any 
instrument may now be connected with 
any line wire, and a little study of the 
connections will show that any two line 
wires may be cross connected, or that any 
desired wire east from the office may be 
connected to any other wire west, or any 
required changes in the wire connections 
be made. The lowest row of studs is con¬ 
nected with the ground wire. By insert¬ 
ing a plug at the bottom of the board, con¬ 
necting the east and west line straps to¬ 
gether, the wire is cut out. The hoard 
shown is provided with disc lightning 
arresters. 


53 


Large switch boards are often fitted 
with spring jacks for cutting in the in¬ 
struments, the straps being then used 
only for cross connections, battery con¬ 
nection, etc., thus rendering a much 
fewer number of horizontal connectors 
necessary. Otherwise, the board would 
often be of an inconvenient or impracti¬ 
cable height if horizontal connections 
were required for every instrument. 

The spring jack consists essentially of 
a plate or strap of brass upon which the 
jack, also of brass, is held firmly by means 
of a spring. Each of these is in connec¬ 
tion with one of the ordinary board 
straps to which the two ends of the line 
wire are connected, and which are thus 
effectually cut out. The instrument 
wires are connected through a flexible 
conducting cord, similar to that used 
with the ordinary plug switch, with the 
two brass sides of a wedge which are 
separated and insulated from each other 
by hard rubber. When this wedge is 
inserted between the jack and the lower 
plate the instrument is cut in. 


54 


Loops. 

What is technically termed a ‘‘loop” 
in telegraphy, is a wire branching off 
from the main circuit, running to some 
point and returning again to the line. A 
loop is arranged so that it may be cut 
out from the line if necessary. A plug 
switch is the most convenient for this 
purpose, the switch being put in circuit 
at the office where the loop commences, 
and the wires of the loop attached to 
the plug. 

Arrangement of Offices. 

In the arrangement of offices, the line 
wire entering the office first passes through 
the cut-out switch and lightning arrester, 
and then through the key and the magnet 
of the relay. It is immaterial which of 
these latter instruments is first in order 
in the circuit, as long as they are all prop¬ 
erly connected. The circuit, after pass¬ 
ing through the apparatus, is made com¬ 
plete to the ground, if it is a terminal 
office; or runs back through the lightning 


55 


arrester and cnt-out, out of the office and 
on toward the next station, if it is a way 
station. The connections of the local cir¬ 
cuit, which is entirely confined to the 
office, may be understood by reference to 
Fig. 8. 


Arrangement of Batteries. 

Two batteries are generally used on the 
main circuit, one at each end. The 
number of cells in each battery is equal 
under ordinary circumstances, and the 
number will depend upon the length and 
resistance of the circuit. Not only should 
the different cups of each battery be con¬ 
nected with regard to the law of attrac¬ 
tion and repulsion, but the batteries at 
each end of the line should be placed 
with opposite poles to the line , in accord¬ 
ance with the same law. Frequently, 
several wires are worked from the same 
battery on the principle of a “ divided 
circuit 99 ; and in this case it is important 
that the wires should equal each other in 
resistance as nearly as possible. 


56 


Repeaters. 

When the length of a telegraph circuit 
renders it of too great resistance to be 
worked satisfactorily, the circuit is divided 
into two or more parts, and a repeater is 


Fig. 17. 



used. The repeater “ repeats,” or trans¬ 
mits the signals received on one circuit 
into the other, much in the same way 
as the relay repeats the signals from 
the main into the local circuit. The re- 















57 


peater must be arranged, so as to transmit 
from either circuit into the other, accord¬ 
ing to the direction in which the message 
may be going. 

The connections of a simple “switch 
repeater” are shown in Fig. 17. M and 
M' are the relay magnets of the eastern 
and western circuits respectively; and 
S and S' are the sounders of the eastern 
and western circuits; B and B the main¬ 
line batteries. The local circuits connect 
the sounders with the relays in the ordi¬ 
nary manner, but the local wires are omit¬ 
ted in the figure, in order to avoid con¬ 
fusion of the lines. 

The sounders, S S', are of a peculiar 
construction, their levers being provided 
with platinum points, similar to those 
of a relay. The opposite main circuit 
passes through the lever and platinum 
points of each sounder, so that, as the 
sounder is worked by its relay, it repeats 
the signals through its platinum points 
into the opposite circuit. 

With the switch, R, in the position 
shown in the figure, the two circuits 


58 


work through, not as a repeater, but as a 
single circuit. This may be seen by tra¬ 
cing the connections in the figure. It 
should be remembered that the wires do 
not touch each other at points where they 
are represented as crossing each other. 
By connecting the ground wire by means 
of the ground switch, GS, the through 
circuit is divided'into two distinct and 
independent circuits. 

When the apparatus is arranged as a 
repeater, the ground wire is also con¬ 
nected. When the switch, It, is turned 
so as to connect the points W and W, the 
western sounder, S, repeats into the 
eastern circuit. When the switch, R, is 
turned so as to connect the points E and 
E, the reverse operation takes place, and 
the eastern sounder, S'; repeats into the 
western circuit. The operation may be 
readily understood by carefully tracing 
the connections with the lever, R, in the 
several different positions named. 

It will be noticed that the switch must 
be turned every time the sending changes 
from one circuit to the other. Several 


59 


forms of “automatic repeaters’’ are in 
use, in which this result is automatic, the 
only attention necessary being in keeping 
the apparatus properly adjusted. 

Automatic Repeaters. 

Of the various forms of automatic re¬ 
peaters, the Milliken-Hicks repeater has 
been adopted by the Western Union Tele¬ 
graph Company as their standard. The 
principle of its operation may he under¬ 
stood by reference to the diagram, Fig. IS. 
The relay is shown in Fig. 18&. 

Each circuit passes through the larger 
magnet of the relay, and repeating points 
of the repeating sounder, to ground. 
The local circuit connects contact points 
of relay with the sounder magnet in the 
usual manner. An extra local circuit 
runs through the extra magnet, X, of 
the relay and the extra contact points 
of the sounder on the opposite side. Xow, 
let the west circuit open key. Relay R 
opens, and through its local circuit opens 
sounder S, which opens the east circuit 


Fig. 18. 


/ 





Mil liken Hicks Repeater, 






































61 


at C. But S at the same time opens the 
extra local circuit of the extra relay mag¬ 
net X', and its armature lever falls back 
and is drawn by the retractile spring 
firmly against the lever of R', thus pre- 


Fig; 18a. 



Milliken-Hicks Belay. 


venting the breaking of the east local 
circuit, and holding the repeating sounder 
on that side closed. The east circuit 
repeats into the west in the same manner. 
The keys, hot shown in the diagram, 
are connected in the usual manner. 







62 


PART III. — THE QUADRUPLEX. 

Duplex and Quadruplex Systems. 

A duplex telegraph is a system whereby 
a single line wire is utilized for the si¬ 
multaneous transmission of two messages 
—as usually understood, one in each di¬ 
rection. 

A quadruplex telegraph is a system 
whereby a single line wire is utilized for 
the simultaneous transmission of four 
messages—two in each direction. 

Experiments in duplex transmission 
were made in England, Austria, and Ger¬ 
many as early as the year 1853, hut 
nothing of practical value seems to have 
been accomplished until 1868, when J. 
B. Stearns of Boston introduced his du¬ 
plex system upon the lines of the Frank¬ 
lin Telegraph Company. It was not 
until 1872 that improvements were 
made by the same inventor which ren¬ 
dered his system practicable upon long 
lines. The quadruplex was invented by 
T. A. Edison in 1874, and important 


63 


improvements were made later by various 
American electricians. 

The polar duplex is still in use, and 
an examination of the principles in¬ 
volved in both that and the Stearns sys¬ 
tem will be necessary as preliminary to 
the study of the quadruplex. 

' The Stearns Duplex. 

In studying any system of double trans¬ 
mission, consider that it is only essential 
that each relay shall respond freely to the 
signals transmitted from the distant sta¬ 
tion, without interference from those 
transmitted at its own station, by which 
it remains entirely unaffected. 

Reference is first made to principles 
stated in Part I.: When a current di¬ 
vides between two branches of a circuit, 
equal currents will traverse branches of 
equal resistance. When currents of equal 
strength pass in opposite directions 
through the coils of an electro-magnet, 
no magnetic effect is manifested. 

The principle of the Stearns duplex 
may be readily understood by reference 


64 


to Fig. 19, which shows connections at 
one end of the line, station A, only, the 
connections at station B being identical. 
N is a differentially wound or neutral 
relay, T a single-current transmitter, R 


Fig. 19. 



a rheostat, and B the battery. The key, 
K, is not located in the main circuit, but 
operates the transmitter through a local 
battery and connections, L, the trans¬ 
mitter itself performing the service of 
opening and closing the main circuit. 





























65 


The transmitter lever and connections 
are shown on a larger scale by Fig. 19«, 
G representing the ground connection, 
T the line, and B the battery connection. 
The position shown is when key is closed 
and magnet M attracts, its armature. 
The opposite end of the lever is now 


Fig. 19a. 



elevated, and the spring, S, which is in¬ 
sulated from the lever, is brought into 
contact with the set-screw, making con¬ 
nection from battery to line. When key 
is open the same end of the lever moves 
downw.ard, breaking contact with B, and 
spring S presses upward, making contact 
with C, establishing connection between 














66 


ground and line. Thus, when the key 
is closed battery is to line, when it is 
open line is to ground. 

The current from T divides at d (Fig. 
19), passing in opposite directions through 
the coils of the neutral relay, one branch 
through the rheostat circuit to ground, 
the other to line. The resistance of 
the rheostat being adjusted to make these 
currents of equal strength, no magnetic 
effect is produced in the relay. That 
portion of the current going to line, 
however, passes through the line coil only 
of the relay at the distant station, B, and 
this current not being balanced by any 
current through the second coil, the arm¬ 
ature of relay at B is attracted in re¬ 
sponse to signals from A, while the arma¬ 
ture of relay at A remains inert. 

Now, let key be closed at station B, 
and a similar effect is produced, but in 
the opposite direction, relay B remaining 
unaffected while relay A responds. These 
effects are produced during simultaneous 
transmission from both ends of the line, 
whether the keys are closed simulta- 


67 


neously or not. If A closes key at the 
same instant with B, the neutral effect 
is produced in both relays by the current 



from the home battery, but each receives 
an additional strength of current from 
the distant station through the line 
coil of its relay which moves the arma- 





68 


ture. Thus, under all conditions, each 
relay is unaffected by signals sent at 
its own station, while it responds to those 
from the distant station. 

The neutral relay is similar in appear¬ 
ance to the ordinary Morse relay, and 
operates a sounder through a local battery 
and connections, not shown in the dia¬ 
gram. The transmitter is shown in Fig. 

m 

The Condenser. 

A line wire will, to a certain extent, 
induce electricity in other objects, espe¬ 
cially adjacent wires upon the same route, 
and thus, acting as an electrical con¬ 
denser, will take up an additional charge. 
In the duplex, when the transmitter sud¬ 
denly cuts off the battery and substitutes 
a route of small resistance to the ground, 
a portion of this accumulated charge 
will return to the ground rather than 
overcome the greater resistance of the 
line. This return charge is known among 
operators as the “ kick.” The result is 
a momentary magnetization of the relay, 
which causes a false movement of the 


69 


armature. To counteract this a condenser 
is used, which may be adjusted to coun¬ 
teract the accumulative capacity of the 
line, and which, discharging itself through 

Pig: 20. 



the magnet coils in an opposite direction, 
may neutralize the effect of the kick. 

The condenser, as usually constructed, 
consists of sheets of tin-foil separated by 
alternate sheets of mica, enclosed in a 

































70 


flat wooden box. Alternate sheets of tin- 
foil are connected to line and ground in 
croups, and any number of groups re¬ 
quired may be placed in circuit by means 
of plugs. C is the condenser in Figs. 19 
and 20. 

The Polar Duplex. 

The polar relay is shown in Fig. 20 a. 
A large permanent magnet of a curved 
form is mounted upon a base. The 
electro-magnet cores are differentially 
wound and fastened to the south pole of 
the permanent magnet, and so become 
south poles by induction. The armature 
lever is connected with the north pole of 
the permanent magnet, and so its end, 
projecting between the cores, becomes a 
north pole by induction. Now, as long 
as no current passes, both cores are, at 
their upper ends, south poles, and the 
lever is attracted equally by them, as long 
as it is adjusted midway between them, 
and remains inert. 

The pole-changer \ Fig. 20 b) is the in¬ 
strument by means of which the direction 
of the current is changed, thus producing 


71 


% 


Fig. 20a. 



Polar Relay. 














































































































n 


changes of polarity in the relay. It is 
operated by a key and local battery. 

Fig. 20 is a theoretical diagram of the 
polar duplex, and shows the operation of 
the pole-changing device. A thin strip 
of metal projects from the end of the 
armature lever, L, which is at all times 
in connection with the ground. The 
position shown is when key is open, the 
armature end of the lever being elevated, 
while the contact end is depressed, which 
places the + pole of battery to ground 
through contact spring c, while the — 
pole is to line through c'. When key is 
closed the contact end of lever is elevated, 
lifting c' from the set-screw below it, and 
allowing c to come in contact with the 
set-screw above it, placing + pole to line 
and — pole to ground. 

P is the polar relay, and currents from 
either C or C' divide at d , one branch 
through one coil of the relay to line, the 
other through the second coil of relay 
and the rheostat, R, to ground. As in the 
Stearns duplex, the rheostat is balanced 
to line, and the two branch currents are 


73 



















































































































































































































































































74 


of equal strength, and passing through 
the coils in opposite directions, produce 
no magnetic effect. 

Now, suppose the strength of each 
branch of the current traversing the coils 
at station A to be represented by 3, and 
that while the + pole of battery at A is 
to line we place the — pole of battery 
to line at the distant station B. Then 
there will be an additional current having 
a strength of 3, from battery at B, pass¬ 
ing through the line coil at A, and its 
armature is attracted to s. In like man¬ 
ner, at B the — current from its battery 
will be augmented by a + strength of 
3 from the battery at A through the 
line coil at B, and its armature also at¬ 
tracted to s. 

Now, the first requirement is that each 
relay shall remain unaffected by changes 
oi polarity of its home battery. Open 
the pole-changer at A, reversing the poles 
from + to — to line. Station B still 
has — pole to line, and the two batteries 
being now opposed to each other, no cur¬ 
rent passes through the line coil of relay 


75 


at A, but there is still a current flowing 
in through the second coil, and in the 
same direction as before the change of 
polarity, and this repels the armature, 
which remains as before. 

The second requirement is that the 
armature of either relay shall respond to 
changes of polarity at the distant station. 
Let A have + pole to line and let dis¬ 
tant station B change from — to +. 
The two batteries now oppose each other 
and no current passes through the line 
coil at A, but a current of 3 still passes 
through the rheostat branch to ground 
through the second coil and in a direc¬ 
tion opposite to that before the change 
of polarity at B. Therefore the armature 
is repelled to n. As these effects occur 
in either direction, each relay responds 
only to changes of polarity at the distant 
station. 

The use of condenser C is to give a static 
discharge and prevent the “ kick ” at 
the instant of changes of polarity. 

The Quadruple^. 

These two systems of double trans¬ 
mission combined, with certain modifica- 


76 


ce 

Q- 


o 




o 


Double Transmission in One Direction. 
















































































77 


tions, form the quadruplex. The most 
important modification relates to the 
Stearns system. In this duplex, which 
operates on the primary conditions of 
battery to line and no battery to line, 
there will he intervals when there is 
no current on the line from either bat¬ 
tery. Again, the polar system operates 
upon the principle of changes of polar¬ 
ity, and it is evident that when com¬ 
bined with the Stearns duplex the in¬ 
terruption of the current by the Stearns 
side will interfere with the working of 
the polar side. This difficulty is over¬ 
come in the quadruplex by arranging the 
battery in two sections, and the trans¬ 
mitter, instead of cutting off battery en¬ 
tirely when the key is open, leaves one 
third of it in circuit, while the entire 
battery is in circuit when the key is 
closed. 

Simplify the explanation by reference 
to Fig. 20c, which is a theoretical diagram 
showing the combination of the neutral 
and polar principles to work in one 
direction only, the two sending instru- 


Fig. 20 d 


78 



Quadruples Connections. 






























































































































79 


ments being at station A and the two re¬ 
ceiving instruments at station B. The 
circuit, starting from ground at G, passes 
to the pole-changer, PC, thence from 
„ contact s to — pole of battery, from + 
pole of battery to contact of transmitter 
T, thence to the other contact s' of PC. 
A tap wire , cutting off two thirds of the 
battery called the long end , connects with 
lever T as a substitute for the ground 
connection of the Stearns duplex. 

At station B, the polar relay, PR, re¬ 
sponds only to changes of polarity, or 
direction of current, without regard to 
strength. The neutral relay, N, responds 
only to increase in strength of current 
without regard to polarity. Thus, PR re¬ 
sponds only to PC, and N responds only 
to T. The polar relay, therefore, in¬ 
tended to respond to changes of polarity 
in currents of varying strength, is made 
very sensitive, the coils being usually 
wound to about 400 ohms resistance in 
each direction. The neutral relay is less 
sensitive, being wound to about 200 ohms 
in each direction, and its retractile spring 


80 


is adjusted to such a tension as to resist 
the attraction of the armature when the 
transmitter at station A is open, and it 
receives the strength of only one third of 
the battery (the short end), while it re¬ 
sponds when the transmitter is closed 
and it receives the strength of the whole 
battery. Thus, the continuity of the 
circuit is never broken by either T, or 
PC at station A. T varies the strength 
of current going to station 13, while PC 
changes its polarity although ihe signals 
transmitted by PC may vary in strength 
according to the position of T at the par¬ 
ticular instant, and it is evident that each 
relay at B will respond independently. 

The diagram, Fig. 20 d, shows the 
actual connections of the quadruplex at 
one station. The circuits connecting 
transmitter T, pole-changer PC, and the 
line coils of neutral relay NR and polar re¬ 
lay PR, and thence to line, are represented 
by unbroken lines. The branch circuit 
through the second coils of the relays 
and rheostat to ground are shown in 
broken lines. Other connections are in 
fine dotted lines. The local circuits oper- 


81 


ating the transmitter, pole-changer, and 
sounders, are omitted from the diagram. 

Trace the line connections, which run 
virtually the same as in Fig. 20c, from the 
ground, G, following the figures on the 
diagram to 6, where the connections with 
the two back stops of PC unite, thence 
to ground switch, GS, and resistance box, 
S. Here the circuit divides for the two 
.coils of the relays, the unbroken lines 
passing through the first coil of the re¬ 
lays, and lightning arrester, A, to line; 
the broken lines through the secondary 
coils, and rheostat, It, to ground at G.'. 
The battery tap wire is shown in fine 
dotted lines, and it will he noticed that 
instead of running directly to the trans¬ 
mitter lever, it makes a loop through a 
small set of resistance coils which are 
included in the same box with the rheo¬ 
stat. This resistance is adjusted to 
balance the internal resistance of the long 
end of the battery, which is cut off by 
the transmitter when the circuit is 
through the tap wire, and thus prevent 
variations of resistance in the circuit re¬ 
sulting from the division of the battery. 


82 


At each change of polarity of the bat¬ 
tery, the line wire, on long circuits, may 
accumulate a static charge, producing a 
kick in the polar relay, and a condenser 
is used, as shown, to neutralize this 
etfect. At the instant of change of polar¬ 
ity, the armature of the neutral relay 
also has a tendency to fall back, thus 
mutilating the signals on the neutral side. 
This defect is remedied by placing the . 
contact point of the neutral relay on the 
back stop, and a repeating sounder is 
substituted for the ordinary local sound¬ 
er. The repeating sounder again re¬ 
verses the signals, which are then received 
on a sounder through an extra local cir¬ 
cuit. Now, the time of demagnetization 
of the neutral relay, during the changes 
of polarity, is so short that the armature 
is again attracted before it makes firm 
contact on the back stop, hence the arm¬ 
ature of the repeating sounder does not 
move sufficiently to mutilate the signals 
as received on the sounder. 

The polar side is also called the No. 1 
Side , and the neutral side the No. 2 Side. 


83 


PART IV.—PRACTICAL TELEGRAPHY. 

Alphabet and Numerals. 

The Morse, or dot and dash alphabet 
is as follows: 


A J- S ~ 

B- K - T — 

C -- - L - U- 

D- M- V- 

E - N — - W- 

F- O - - X - 

G- P . Y -- - 

H - Q- Z - 

I R - - & - — - 


Period --- 

Comma - 

Exclamation-- 

Interrogation- 

The following are the punctuation 
marks : 

1 - 6 . 

2 -- 7- 

3 - 8- 

4 - 9- 

5 - 0 t- 

Several other characters formerly used 

for punctuation have become obsolete, 
and combinations of letters are used in¬ 
stead, as 4 4 Pn ” for 'parenthesis , 4 4 Qn ” 
for quotation , etc. The combination 

44 Sx” is also used for the dollar sign ($). 





84 


Adjustment of Instruments. 

The proper adjustment of the instru¬ 
ments is always an important duty, and 
often a difficult one. Under ordinary 
circumstances, an armature should be 
adjusted so that there will be about space 
enough between it and the poles of the 
magnet, to insert a piece of heavy writing 
paper, when the armature is attracted to¬ 
ward the magnet. If the armature touches 
the poles of the magnet it will S( stick.” 

In stormy weather, which renders the 
insulation of the line defective, the mag¬ 
net of the relay must be drawn back, by 
means of the adjustment screw, to a 
greater distance from its armature. The 
reason of this is, that the escape of the 
current from the line causes residual 
magnetism in the cores of the relay mag¬ 
net, which must be counteracted by ad¬ 
justing back the cores. The spring of 
the relay armature must be adjusted to 
suit the strength of the current. In 
stormy weather adjusting is often exceed¬ 
ingly difficult, and it is sometimes almost 
-impossible to keep the relay working. In 


85 N 

such cases the key should not be opened 
until the relay is carefully adjusted, to 
make sure that no other office is using 
the circuit. 

When the key “sticks,” or fails to 
break circuit, it is usually caused either 
by the platinum points becoming burned 
and roughened by the passage of the cur¬ 
rent, or by dirt and dust around the anvil 
and platinum points,which forms a partial 
connection when the circuit is opened. 
The platinum points may be cleaned by a 
piece of heavy writing paper, or fine 
emery paper, or, in an extreme case by a 
very fine file; but much filing of the 
points should be avoided. 

When the relay works properly and the 
sounder does not work, the fault is in the 
local circuit. The cause will generally 
be found in a broken or disconnected 
wire, or in weakness of the local battery. 
All the connections and binding posts in 
an office, especially those of the main cir¬ 
cuit, should be carefully watched, and 
kept closely and firmly screwed up. The 
lightning arresters should be kept clean, 


86 


and always carefully examined after an 
electric storm. 

Testing Telegraph Lines. 

The interruptions which occur in the 
working of telegraph lines are most com¬ 
monly caused by breaks, escapes, or 
crosses. Trouble is also sometimes caused 
by a loose joint or connection in the cir¬ 
cuit, or by the escape of the current from 
one wire to another on the same poles 
when they are imperfectly insulated, or 
by a defective ground wire connection. 

Breaks. 

The most common causes of the break¬ 
ing of the circuit are a key left open, or 
a broken line wire. When a break occurs 
the relays will all remain “ open,” and 
the result is a total suspension of business 
upon’ the circuit. Every operator should 
proceed to test for the break by connect¬ 
ing the.ground wire of his office, first on 
one side of the instruments and then on 
the other. Supposing the break to be 
east of an office, no “circuit” is made 


87 


when the ground wire is put on west of th6 
instruments, but when it is put on east 
of them the circuit of the battery at the 



west end of the line is completed through 
the ground wire, and all offices west of the 
ground wire can work with each other. 







88 


This is made clearer by reference to 
Fig. 21, which represents a line with 
three offices, ABC, with a break at F, 
between B and. C. When the ground 
wire at B is put on west of the office the 
break interrupts the circuit, but when it 
is put on east the circuit is complete be¬ 
tween A and B, showing that the break 
is east of B. In this way, it is evident 
that^ the fault may be located between 
some two stations. 

Escapes. 

Escapes often occur, in a greater or les* 
degree, all along a line, from defective 
insulation, especially during stormy 
weather. When, however, there is an 
escape at any particular point, it may be 
located as follows: The circuit manager 
should call up the offices in order, begin¬ 
ning with the one at the farther end of 
the line, and have them open circuit for 
a moment. When the circuit is open be¬ 
yond the escape a little current will still 
pass over the line, completing its circuit 
through the escape and ground. 


89 


On the line shown in Fig. 22 the es¬ 
cape is at F. When the key at 0 is open 
there will still be a current at A, which 





passes through the escape and ground. 
When the key at B is open this current 
is stopped, locating the escape between 
B and C. 






90 


Grounds. 

The only difference between an escape 
and a ground is, that a ground causes the 
loss of the whole, and an escape of only 
a part of the current. A ground is tested 
for and located in the same way as an 
escape. A ground is often caused by a 
ground wire being carelessly left on in an 
office. 


Crosses. 

Fig. 23 represents a line with two 
wires, No. 1 and No. 2, which are crossed 
between B and C. To locate the cross 
the circuit manager at A should open No. 
2 as shown, and have C open No. 1 and 
send dots on No. 2. These dots will be 
transferred at the cross from No. 2 to No. 
1 and come on No. 1 at A. If, however, 
B opens No. 1 and attempts to send dots 
on No. 2, there is no circuit on either 
wire, as they are both open, one at A and 
the other at B, showing that the cross is 
beyond B. 


91 


Fig. 23. 



Cross. 


Maintenance of Battery. 

To start the battery, place the parts in 
position, put from \ to f of a pound of 
sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) in the 
bottom of the jar, and fill it with water 
sufficient to cover the top of the zinc. 











92 


The battery should be allowed to stand 
quietly, so as to avoid mixing the solu¬ 
tions, and when newly set up, must stand 
for several hours on closed circuit before 
it will develop its normal electro-motive 
force. Sulphate of copper is composed of 
oxide of copper and sulphuric acid. It 
is decomposed by the action of the battery, 
the copper being separated from the acid 
and deposited upon the copper plate of 
the battery in the form of a scaly crust, 
while the acid attacks the zinc, by which 
it is constantly consumed, forming sul¬ 
phate of zinc in the upper part of the 
jar. The battery, if in proper condition, 
should show a distinctly marked line of 
separation of the solutions, although, as 
usually cared for, it seldom does so. As 
the sulphate of copper is constantly being 
dissolved, a few crystals may be dropped 
to the bottom of the jar once in every 
two or three days, keeping the blue line 
of separation up to within about one inch 
of the bottom of the zinc. On the other 
hand, the zinc solution is constantly in¬ 
creasing in density, and a little may be 


93 


drawn off from time to time by means of 
a syringe, and replaced by fresh water. 
The zinc should be removed from the 
jar occasionally and cleaned with a brush. 
The battery should be kept clean, and 
not allowed to freeze, for when frozen the 
current is weakened or altogether sus¬ 
pended. 


Balancing the Quadruplex. 

The ground switch, GS, in Fig. 20 d, 
is used in making the balance of the 
quadruplex. The distant station is re¬ 
quested to “ground.” This cuts out his 
whole battery and pole-changer, but in¬ 
cludes a resistance in the rheostat box. 
as shown in the diagram, which is equal 
to the internal resistance of the battery, 
consequently the balance will be correct 
when the battery is again cut in. Now, 
the station making the balance turns his 
switch to ground also, and line is with¬ 
out battery at either end. Adjust the 
armature of polar relay so it will remain 
on whichever side it is placed. Then cut 


94 


in full battery and adjust the rheostat un¬ 
til the armature of polar relay will again 
remain on whichever side it is placed, 
showing that the resistances of the line 
and rheostat branches are equal. Finally, 
open and close the pole-changer and ad¬ 
just the condenser until the polar relay 
does not respond to the static charge or 
discharge of the line. 

The polar duplex is balanced in a sim¬ 
ilar manner. 


PART V.—CONSTRUCTION OF LINES. 

The improper and imperfect construe, 
fcion of telegraph lines is often the cause 
of much unnecessary trouble and waste of 
material in working them. It is proposed 
to give, in this chapter, a general idea of 
the proper construction of a line, with 
such hints as may be of assistance to stu¬ 
dents and amateurs in the construction 
and equipment of private and short lines. 

The essential parts of a telegraph line 
are the conductors, which form a path 



95 


for the current, and the insulators, which 
confine the current to the conductors and 
prevent its escape to the ground. The 
poles are not essential to the working of a 
line, but serve merely as a support for the 
conductors, which are insulated from 
them at each point of support. 

The Conductors. 

Galvanized iron is most commonly used 
for line wire, as plain iron wire is liable 
to rust, which impairs its conducting 
power. On the best lines the sizes known 
as Nos. 8 and 9 are generally used, but a 
Smaller size, as No. 11 or No. 12, w'ill 
answer for short lines. It should be re¬ 
membered that the smaller the size of the 
wire the less is its conducting power, and 
consequently, the greater the battery 
power that will be required to work it. 

Great care should be exercised in mak¬ 
ing joints or splices, either in the line or 
office wires. One loose joint often gives 
more resistance than a great length of 
continuous wire. The proper way to 
make a ioint is to twist the end of each 


Glass Insum tor. 

















































97 


wire several times closely around the other, 
with the several turns of wire at right 
angles to the line. Wires should nevei 
he hooked together end bent back upon 
themselves 

Line wires of hard drawn copper are 
now in common use, especially for quad- 
ruplex and important circuits. 


The Insulators. 

The glass insulator, shown in Fig. 24, 
is the most common form. It is made 
to screw upon a thread cut upon a bracket 
which is spiked to the side of the pole, 
or, more frequently, upon a pin which is 
set in a cross-arm. The line wire is 
fastened to the insulator by a short piece 
of wire called tie tvire, which is passed 
around a groove in the insulator and its 
ends twisted around the line wire on each 
side. The insulator should never be 
fastened to the bracket by a spike driven 
over it into the pole, nor should the edge 
of the insulator be allowed to touch the 
top edge of the bracket or the side of the 


98 


pole, for this forms a connection between 
the insulator and the pole, causing an 
escape when the insulator is wet. 

Various other forms of insulators are 
used for ordinary line work, or for spe¬ 
cial purposes. 

Fitting up Offices. 

The line wires usually pass into an 
office directly over a window, and are 
carried through insulating window tubes 
of hard rubber. An enlarged head is 
usually made on the end of the tube 
which is inside the office. The line wire 
is securely fastened to an insulator outside 
the office whence it runs through the 
tube. The end of the wire which pro¬ 
jects through the tube is commonly bent 
into a hook, and the copper office wire 
spliced to it. A large number of close 
convolutions should be made around the 
line wire, and the joint carefully soldered. 
A better method is to cut a thread upon 
the end of the line wire, upon which a 
binding post may be screwed to receive 
the office wire. 




99 


Wires are now frequently brought into 
offices by using insulated copper wires 
grouped in cables, which are connected 
to the line wires within a box fixed to the 
pole outside the office. A lightning ar¬ 
rester is generally used in connection, the 
ground wire running down the side of 
the pole. 

Copper wire is used within offices. 
No. 16 is the most common size, and it 
is usually insulated by a covering of cot¬ 
ton or linen. It may be fastened to the 
walls or table whenever desired by small 
wire staples. The arrangement of the 
apparatus and batteries has already been 
explained. Splices in office wires should 
be very carefully and firmly made. 

Ground-wire Connections. 

Ground wires should be insulated with 
gutta-percha, or some other material not 
liable to be affected by exposure to the 
weather, and firmly attached to a large 
plate of metal, buried deep enough in the 
ground to be beyond the reach of frost, 
and always in connection with moist 
earth. For a short line a sheet of oop- 


100 


per or tin having a surface of several 
square feet will make a good ground con¬ 
nection. The ground wire should be sol¬ 
dered to the plate, so as to insure a firm 
contact. 


Private and Short Lines. 

A short line may be operated much 
more economically and satisfactorily by 
the observance of the proper proportions 
between the conductors, instruments/and 
batteries. The rule of the “ Proportion 
of Electro-magnets to the Circuit” has 
been given in Part I. As it is not often 
convenient to measure the resistance of 
short private lines, the approximate re¬ 
sistance per mile of galvanized iron line 
wires is given below. If the line is well 
constructed, these figures will approxi¬ 
mate to the resistance of the line, undei 
favorable circumstances. 

No. 8 wire, about 16 Ohms per mih*. 

No. 9 “ “ 20 “ “ 

No. 10 “ “ 24 “ “ 

No. 11 “ “ 30 “ “ 

No. 12 “ “ 36| “ “ 


101 


For an example, suppose a line one and 
one-half miles in length, of No. 10 wire. 
Its resistance by the above figures would 
be 36 ohms. The resistance of the electro¬ 
magnets should, according to our rule, 
equal that of the line. If there are four 
magnets in circuit they should have a re¬ 
sistance of 9 ohms each, as 36-^4 = 9. 
This gives a resistance of the whole cir¬ 
cuit as follows : 

Resistance of Conductor.... 36 Ohms. 

“ “ 4 Magnets, 9 

ohms each.. 36 “ 

Total...72 Ohms. 

The internal resistance of a battery 
sufficient to work a line of so light a re¬ 
sistance is so small that it need not be 
taken into account. Under favorable 
conditions, 4 cells of Daniell, Hill or 
Callaud battery will operate this line 
satisfactorily. 

The comparative strength of current 
with different numbers of cells of battery 
may be calculated by Ohm s Law, given 



102 


in Part 1, thus;—the electro-motive force 
of a cell of battery being taken at 56 

With 2 cells of battery, electro-motive 
force is 112, resistance of circuit is 72— 
il2-i-72=1.55 effective strength of cur¬ 
rent. 

With 4 cells of battery, electro-motive 
force is 224, resistance of circuit is 72— 
224-^-72=3.11 effective strength of cur¬ 
rent. 

The resistance of the whole number 
of electro-magnets should be equal to 
the resistance of the rest of the circuit, 
and the resistance of the magnets should 
be equal with respect to each other. Much 
more satisfactory results can be obtained 
in the working of a short line by having 
the magnets made to order of the resis¬ 
tance required. In most cases relays 
will not be necessary on such a line, but 
the common local sounders, of a high re¬ 
sistance, may be worked direct by the 
main line current. 

In actual practice better results may 
be obtained by making the resistance of 
electro-magnets somewhat less than that 


I 


103 

of the other parts of the circuit, making 
allowance for the defective insulation of 
the line, as on poorly insulated lines the 
actual resistance will be considerably re¬ 
duced during wet weather. 

In calculating the resistance of the 
short lines above considered, the interna. 
resistance of the batteries is not taken 
into account. In actual practice this 
should always be considered, and the 
computation may be made by the follow¬ 
ing formula : 

E. equals the electro-motive force of batteries. 

R. “ resistance of the line. 

M. “ resistance of the magnets. 

B. internal resistance of batteries. 

C “ strength of the current. 

Then c= rtStb 



APPENDIX. 


SUGGESTIONS AND EXERCISES FOR 
LEARNERS. 

It is extremely desirable that a student 
of telegraphy should commence his prac¬ 
tice under the instruction of a competent 
and thorough operator, but as many stu¬ 
dents are unable, at first, to obtain such 
instruction, the following suggestions 
may be beneficial to them, until they 
have an opportunity for practice in a 
regular telegraph office. 

An erroneous idea prevails among many 
learners that it is an easy matter to learn 
to “send,” and that it is proficiency in 
“ receiving,” or “ reading by sound,” 
only, which is secured by long and dili¬ 
gent practice. The style of sending of 
different operators varies as much as the 
style of penmanship of different individ¬ 
uals. If a student learns to send too fast 



105 


he will certainly acquire a bad style. A 
good rule is, never to let the speed of 
sending exceed the rate at which the 
same student has learned to receive by 
sound. 

The first part of a student’s education 
is the memorizing of the Morse alphabet, 
which has been given in another part of 
this book. When the characters have 
been learned, they may be practiced upon 
the key ; but, as it is the opinion of 
experienced’ instructors that it is better 
not to practice the alphabet in its regular 
order, the letters are given hereafter in 
groups, each one of which forms an exer¬ 
cise which should be practiced until 
thoroughly mastered before commencing 
the next. 

Attention should be given from the 
first, to the correct position of the hand 
in manipulating the key. Place the hand 
with the first two fingers upon the top of 
the finger piece of the key, with the 
thumb at the side, and partly beneath 
the finger piece. The third and fourth 
fingers should assume much the same 


106 


position as when holding a pen in writing 
The arm should rest upon the table at or 
near the elbow, with the wrist entirely 
free from the table. Keep the fingers 
constantly upon the key during manipula¬ 
tion,-grasping the key firmly, but not too 
hard. 

The force imparted to the key should 
be from the wrist, and not from the 
fingers, the wrist always moving in the 
same direction with the lever of the key. 
The pressure should be directly down¬ 
wards, and not sideways. Let the 
motion be moderately firm, and give the 
lever the full vertical motion, so that the 
downward motion insures a firm contact 
between the platinum points, and the up¬ 
ward motion the complete breaking of the 
circuit. 

The dots and dashes composing each 
character are separated from each other 
by breaks , the different characters are 
separated from each other by spaces, and 
words are separated from each other by a 
still longer space. Correct sending de¬ 
pends upon the perfect proportion in the 


107 


length of dots and dashes, breaks and 
spaces. 

Practice the following exercises in 
order. Do not leave one until it is 
thoroughly mastered. 

Exercise 1. 

E. I. S. H. P. 


Make the breaks between the dots as 
short as possible, but let the upward mo¬ 
tion of the key be full and free. 

Exercise 2. 

T. L. M. 


The dash should be three times the 
length of a dot. Make the dashes in M 
of equal length and close together. Do 
not make T too long, or L too short. L 
should be twice the length of T. 


A. 


Exercise 3. 

U. 


V. 


108 


Exercise 4. 

N. D. B. 


Care should be taken to make the let* * 
ters in the above two exercises compact 
and to preserve the proper proportions 
between dots and dashes. 

In the foregoing exercises there are 
four classes of letters, as follows : 

First, dots. 

Second, dashes. 

Third, dots followed by dashes. 

Fourth, dashes followed by dots. 

The rest of the exercises include all the 
remaining letters of the alphabet, which 
are combinations of those already given. 

Exercise 5. 

F. X. W. G. 



The following are called the “ spaced 


109 


letters/’ the “space” being just long 
enough to distinguish it from a ‘•'break.” 

Exercise 6. 

0. R. & 

C. Z. Y. 


The figures and punctuation marks are 
omitted in the above exercises, as they 
are more difficult than the letters, and it 
is better to practice the easier combina¬ 
tions until a complete control is gained 
over the key. When once the student 
has become master of the key he will have 
no difficulty in forming any character, 
and the figures and punctuation marks 
may be practiced in order, as given in 
another part of this book. 

Fractions are formed by using a dot to 
represent the line between numerator and 
denominator. 

In sending large numbers, a space, 
equal to that used between words, is used 


110 


to divide them into periods of three fig¬ 
ures each. 

After having learned thoroughly all 
the Morse characters, commence to prac¬ 
tice short words, writing slowly and spac-* 
ing carefully. 

Particular care should be exercised in 
writing words containing spaced letters. 
The following words present a few exam¬ 
ples, which will illustrate the difficulty 
of writing words containing a number of 
spaced letters: Ice, Erie, Kice, Cicero, 
Receive. 

No forms for commercial and railroad 
messages are here given, as these are 
among the details of telegraph business, 
with which the student should familiarize 
himself by actual practice in a regular 
telegraph office. 


INDEX. 


Adjustment of Instruments, 84. 

Alphabet —Morse, 83; Exercises for Practic¬ 
ing, 107. 

Ampere, 20. 

Armature, 24. 

Arrangement of Batteries, 55; Cells in, 14. 

Arrangement of Offices, 54. 

Attraction and Repulsion —Law of Electri¬ 
cal, 9. 

Automatic Repeaters, 59. 

Balancing the Quadruplex, 93. 

Batteries —Arrangement of, 55; Electrical 
Quantity and Tension of, 14; Galvanic, 11. 

Battery —Arrangement of Cells in, 14; Care of, 
91; Gravity, 15; Poles of a, 12- Setting 
up, 91. 

Box Relay, 43. 

Breaks —Testing for, 86. 

Cables —Wires grouped in, 99. 

Cells —of a Battery, Arrangement of, 14. 

Circuit —Galvanic, 9: Local, 33; Metallic, 29: 
Proportion of Electro-magnets to, 27; Tel¬ 
egraph, 29. 



112 


INDEX. 


Circuits— Divided, 21. 

Condensers, 68. 

Conductors— of a Telegraph Line, 95. 
Conductors and Non-Conductors, 10. * 

Construction of Lines, 94. 

Copper Line Wires, 97. 

Crosses— Testing for, 90. 

Current— Direction of the, 12; Electric, 9. Gal¬ 
vanic or Voltaic, 9; Unit of, 20. 

Currents— Measurement of, 20. 

Cut-Outs, 45; Plug, 45; Spring, 47; Spring 
Jack, 53. 

Differential Magnets, 25. 

Direction of Current, 12. 

Divided Circuits, 21. 

Double Transmission— in one direction, 77. 
Duplex Telegraphs, 62; Polar, 70; Stearns, 63. 

Edison— -Inventor of the Quadruplex, 62. 
Electric Current, 9. 

Electrical Quantity and Tension, 13. 
Electricity, 9; Galvanic or Voltaic,11; Posi¬ 
tive and Negative, 9. 

Electro-Magnets, 23; Differential, 25; Poles 
of, 25; Proportions of, 28. 

Electro-motive Force, 17; Unit of, 18. 
Energy— Electrical, 18. 

Escapes— Testing for, 88. 

Exercises for Learners, 104. 


INDEX. 


113 


Faults— In Line, 86; in Local Circuit, 85. 
Fitting up Offices, 98. 

Fractions— Sending, 109. 

Galvanic Battery, 11. 

Galvanic Circuit, 12. 

Galvanic Electricity, 11. 

Galvanometer, 20. 

Glass Insulator, 97. 

Gravity Battery, 15. 

Grounds— Testing for, 90. 

Ground Switches, 46; 52. 

Ground Wires, 85; Connections for, 99. 

Induction— Magnetic, 26. 

Instruments— Adjustment of, 84; Combination 
Set of, 44; Main Line, 48. 

Insulator— Glass, 27. 

Insulators— of Electricity, 10; of a Telegraph 
Line, 97. 

Intensity— of Currents, 13. 

Intermediate Offices, 82. 

Inventor— of the Telegraph, 28; of the Quad- 
ruplex, 62. 

Joints in Wires, 95, 98. 

Key, 35 ; Manipulation of, 105; Sticking of, 85. 
Kick— the, 68. 

Law— Ohm’s, 18. 

Laws of the Current, 9, 12, 18, 27. 


114 


INDEX. 


i . 

Lessons for Learners, 104. 

Lightning Arresters, 48, 49, 50; Care of, 85. 
Lines —Construction of, 94; Private and Short, 
100 ; Testing of, 86. 

Line Wires, 95; Copper, 97 ; Joints in, 95; Re¬ 
sistance of, 100 ; Sizes of, 95. 

Local Circuit, 38; Faults in, 85. 

Loops, 54. 

Long End —of Battery, 79. 

Magnets —Electro, 23; Armature of, 24; Dif¬ 
ferential, 25; Polarized, 70; Poles of, 26; 
Proportions of, 28 ; Proportion of to Circuit, 
29; Relay. 40; Sounder, 40. 

Maintenance of Battery, 91. 

Magnetic Induction, 26. 

Magnetism —Residual, 27 ; Induced, 26. 
Measurement —of Currents, 20; of Resistance, 
20 . 

Metallic Circuit, 29. 

Milliken Hicks Repeater, 59; Relay, 61. 
Morse, 28; Alphabet, 83; Telegraph, 28. 

Neutral Relay, 68. 

Offices, Arrangement of, 54; Fitting up, 98; 
Intermediate, 32; Wires in, 99. 

Office Wires, 99. 

Ohm, 17. 

Ohm’s Law, 18. 


INDEX. 


115 


Plug Switch, 45. 

Polar Duplex, 70; Balancing the, 94. 

Polar Relay, 70. 

Pole Changer, 70. 

Poles —of a Battery, 12; of a Magnet, 25. 
Positive and Negative —Electricity, 9; Poles 
of a Battery, 12. 

Potential —Electrical, 18; Unit of, 18. 

Practical Telegraphy, 88. 

Private Lines, 100. 

Proportion— of Electro-Magnet to Circuit, 27. 
Proportions —of Electro-Magnets, 28. 

Quadruplex, 75; Balancing the, 93; Invention 
of, 62; Polar Side of, 82; Neutral Side of, 82. 
Quantity —Electrical, 13. 

Relay —Morse, 38; Box, 43; Milliken-Hicks, 
61; Neutral. 68; Polar, 70. 

Repeaters, 56; Automatic, 59; Milliken-Hicks, 
59; Switch, 57. 

Residual Magnetism, 27. 

Resistance, 17; Measurement of, 20; of Line 
Wires, 100; LTnitof, 17. 

Rheostat, 20. 

Short End —of Battery, 80. 

Short Lines, 100. 

Single Current Transmitter, 65. 

Sounder —Main Line, 41; Morse, 40; Repeat¬ 
ing, 57. 


116 


INDEX. 


Splices— in Wires, 95, 98. 

Spring Cut-Out, 47. 

Spring Jack, 53. * 

Stearns Duplex, 63. 

Switch —Plug, 45; Spring Cut-Out, 47. 
Switch Board, 50. 

Tap Wire, 79, 81. 

Telegraph— Duplex, 62; Invention of, 28; 
Morse, 28; Quadruplex, 62, 75. 

Telegraph Circuit, 29. 

Telegraph Lines— Construction of, 94; Insula¬ 
tion of, 97 ; Private, 100;. Testing of, 86. 
Telegraphy— Practical, 83. 

Tension —Electrical, 14. 

Testing Telegraph Lines, 86. 

Tie Wires, 97. 

Transmitter— Single Current, 65. 

Units— Of Current, 20; Of Electro-motive 
Force, 18; Of Potential, 18; Of Resistance, 
17. 

Volt, 18. 

Voltaic Electricity, 11. 

Window Tubes, 98. 

Wires —Copper Line, 97; Joints in, 95, 98; 
Resistance of, 100; Sizes of, 95. 


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